The Hidden Record: Soil-Geomorphic Landscapes and Settlement Archaeology in the Middle Ohio River Valley

by

C. Russell Stafford
Department of Geography, Geology & Anthropology
Indiana State University
Terre Haute, IN 47809
anstff@scifac.indstate.edu

and

Steven D. Creasman
Cultural Resource Analysts
143 Walton Ave.
Lexington, KY 40508
creasman@crai-ky.com

Paper presented at the symposium Formation Processes in Regional Perspective, 65th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, March 25-29, 1998, Seattle, Washington.

Introduction

It has been widely documented that a significant fraction of Archaic period occupations are buried in Holocene alluvial and colluvial landforms in the Midwest and Midsouth. Acknowledging this fact, there is also a recognition that biases are likely to exist in any attempt to develop a regional account of Archaic period settlement strategies based solely on the surface archaeological record (e.g., Wiant et al. 1983; Bettis and Hajic 1995; Stafford 1994). Yet to what extent does this caveat also apply to the late prehistoric record? Recent geoarchaeological studies in the Lower Ohio River valley have identified substantial tracts of late Holocene and very recent post-settlement alluvium that bury Woodland and later prehistoric occupations. Appreciable biases are, therefore, likely to affect regional settlement studies in this region for the Woodland period. Such biases have generally not be taken into consideration in analysis of settlement distributions.

The area of interest is that portion of the Ohio River which flows through the Outer Bluegrass Region from about Manchester, Ohio to Louisville, Kentucky. We will focus our discussion on the late Holocene geomorphology and archaeology of a intensively studied locality within this region located at the confluence of the Great Miami and Ohio rivers, but also draw on more limited or ongoing studies in the larger region. We are not only interested in documenting the substantial volume of late Holocene alluvium in this area and potential biases that are likely to affect regional settlement strategy analyses, but are also concerned with the types of settlements for which biases are likely to exist, either because they are more often buried or because of their character are likely to be obscured in the surface archaeological record. Furthermore, our investigations indicate that cultural remains, though varying in density, are continuously distributed within landforms. We, therefore, question a site oriented approach in these contexts (Stafford 1995; Stafford and Hajic 1992).

Study Region

The region under consideration here is defined by Outer Bluegrass physiographic region where the Ohio River has down cut through Upper Ordovician limestone and shale forming a rather narrow bedrock valley (Figure 1). More resistant Mississippian limestone nearly encircles the Ordovician formation delimiting the region (Ray 1974:10). The Knobstone-Muldraugh Hill escarpment is a conspicuous feature that delineates its western margin. Although a thin layer of pre-Wisconsinan till covers both sides of the valley, the upland topography is bedrock controlled (Ray 1974:2, 10).

Tributary basins are generally small with only four major rivers directly tributary to the region (Great Miami, Little Miami, Kentucky, and Licking rivers). With the exception of the Falls of the Ohio reach the valley is narrow varying from less than 0.8 km to 3.2 km in width. Upland bluffs rise to 400 ft above the floodplain which is generally characterized by elongated wedges of alluvium on one side and steep valley walls on the opposite side. Large scroll bars a significant portion of which are composed of Pleistocene-age terraces are also present. As a result the channel often abuts the bedrock valley and appears to have been in its current location for sometime. This region encompasses 185 river miles (298 km) (Ohio River mile 440-625).

The Great Miami confluence is the focal point of this study. The Great Miami drainage basin covers an area of 13,700 km2 draining along with the Whitewater river much of southeastern Indiana and southwestern Ohio. Although prominent Pleistocene terraces are found along the valley margins of the lower Great Miami and Whitewater, the valley at confluence with Ohio is largely made up of Holocene landforms.

put Steve’s description of field work herePrehistoric data for the study area was derived from intensive archaeological investigations conducted for the Argosy Lawrenceburg Casino between 1995 and 1997 (Creasman 1996; Parish and Creasman 1996; Parish et. el. 1996). The Argosy investigations included the: 1) excavations of over 150 backhoe trenches, 2) recovery of over 30 solid cores, and 3) over 1200 square meters of unit and block excavations. These investigations were conducted in three principal localities on the west side of the valley (see Figure 2). Backhoe trenching conducted for the Teepee commercial development, several miles north of Argosy, provides additional archaeological data (Bradbury 1997). Geomorphological studies were conducted primarily in conjunction with the archaeological Phase I subsurface studies, but with supplementary field work during the Phase II and Phase III investigations (Stafford 1996, 1997).

Geoarchaeological Methods

Landforms and other surficial features were identified valley wide by examining a variety of map and image sources consisting of the Dearborn county soil map (Nickell 1981), the USGS 7.5' Lawrenceburg Ind.-Ky.- Oh. (1943, 1951, 1961) and Hooven (1954, photo revised 1970) topographic quadrangles, US Army Corps of Engineers 1940 flood protection plan (1:400) and 1960 topographic map (1:600) with 2 ft contours, a 1 ft contour (1:200) project map prepared by R.W. Armstrong (1994), USGS NHPA High Altitude Color Infrared aerial photograph (1:58,000) and a SCS 1937, 1940, 1955, and 1966 black-and-white 1:20,000 aerial photographs.

Stratigraphic units and soils were studied based primarily on a series of more than 150 backhoe trenches that reached a maximum depth of about 3.0 meters. Three inch (7.6 cm) solid cores were extracted with a CME-750 ATV drill rig with a 5.0 ft long split-barrel tube to a maximum depth of 6.9 meters. They generally refused on sand and gravel. Cores and trenches were placed to provide information on the structure of landforms and to sample deeply buried archaeological deposits. Additional information was obtained from geotechnical core logs (H.C. Nutting 1994). These borings penetrated to maximum depths ranging from 23.7 to 26.2 meters below surface (three penetrated bedrock).

Soil and sediment descriptions are based on standard USDA soil terminology (Soil Survey Division Staff 1993) including texture (Friedman and Sanders [1978] terminology used for sediment >2mm), color (moist Munsell unless otherwise noted), structure, mottling, consistence, and boundary. Inclusions such as charcoal, burned sediment, bone, and lithic debris were also noted. Observations on texture, color, mottling, and bedding characteristics were made on 17 solid cores.

Geomorphic Surfaces and Landforms

There are seven geomorphic zones in the rather expansive valley (3 km) associated with the Great Miami-Ohio confluence in contrast to the narrow gorgelike valley of the Ohio River (Figures 2 and 3). The surrounding uplands (700+ ft amsl) are covered sporadically with Kansan and Illinoian tills (Gray et al. 1972). Although loess reportedly covers high Wisconsinan terraces (Nickell 1981) none is mapped on regional geologic maps (Gray et al. 1972).

Late Pleistocene unconsolidated valley sand and gravel fill is in excess of 46 m. Valley train deposits are derived from glacial meltwaters from outlets of the Miami-Whitewater river basin representing the maximum advance of the Wisconsinan glacier (Fraser and Fishbaugh 1986:15; Ray 1974). A subsequent entrenchment of the Ohio River into this outwash created the Greendale Terrace (Tankersley et al. 1984; originally identified by Ray 1974 as the Tazwell-age high terrace) that flanks the northwest side of valley (Figure 1). This terrace is defined by the 530 ft contour interval on the USGS quadrangle map and stands 21 m above the surrounding valley floor. Ockly silt loam, an Alfisol with an argillic horizon (Bt) occurs on its surface. Radiocarbon ages between 18,000 and 20,000 BP have been obtained from this terrace (Ray 1974:58; Tankersley et al. 1984), which covers sizable areas along the Lower Ohio River Valley by Ray (1974) and others (Gray 1984; Fraser and Fishbaugh 1986). It also extends into the lower reaches of the Whitewater River valley to the northeast (Tankersley et al. 1984).

An intermediate terrace, called Elizabethtown Terrace (Tankersley et al. 1984; Cary-age Terrace in Ray 1974) is at an elevation of 500 ft amsl, with a remnant at the location of the modern town of Elizabethtown to the northeast of the study area. Its age is approximately 15,000 BP based on a radiocarbon determination from mammoth tusk (Tankersley et al. 1984). The lowest terrace, termed the Hardinsburg Terrace by Tankersley et al. (1984), is at an elevation of 480 ft. This terrace is restricted to the lower Whitewater and Waterwater-Great Miami valleys (see Figure 1). The Hardinsburg terrace probably formed sometime between 15,000 and 10,000 BP, although it is capped with a veneer of Holocene alluvium.

A small band of alluvial and colluvial slopes are present at the base of the upland bluffs. Pate silt loam and Eden flaggy silty clay loam are mapped on these slopes. These are Alfisols that formed in limestone and shale residuum and upland derived silt.

The study area is dominated by landforms of the modern Great Miami River The floodplain is more than 3 km wide with elevations ranging from 460 to 480 ft amsl. Figure 2 depicts the current meander belt of the Great Miami composed of lateral accretion and in-channel deposits. A large scroll bar and neck cut-off meander scar are evident. As late as 1847 this was the location of the main channel of the river (Ray 1974:67). Soils mapped in this area (Newark and Jules), which developed in fine silty or coarse silty sediments, are classified as entisols where little horizonization has taken place (i.e., A-C profiles) indicative of young soils.

To the west is a low relief floodplain flat that represents an earlier meander belt of the Great Miami. Elevations vary between 460 and 470 ft amsl. Huntington silt-loam is mapped throughout this area. It is classified as a mollisol with a cambic or structural B horizon (Bw). Numerous paleochannels and channel fragments of different scale are evident on soil and topographic maps and aerial photographs (Figure 3) in this area. At the current confluence are a series of bifurcated channels and islands. A similar series of abandoned channels are evident to the southwest, one of which is designated the Baltimore paleochannel. They are associate with surfaces that occur at an elevation of 470-475 ft amsl.

The larger of the paleochannels (Greendale) in this zone was an earlier main channel of the Great Miami (Figures 2 and 3). Elevations are the same or higher than the current meander belt of the river across this entire area. The Greendale and other paleochannels depressions are associated with elevations between about 460 and 470 ft amsl. The Greendale and Lawrenceburg paleochannels extended to the confluence area of Tanners Creek, while others like the Old Town channel empty into the Ohio (see Figure 2). This pattern of multiple channels of different scale is suggestive of a flood distributary network associated with a river confluence.

Landforms associated with the Ohio River are confined to the area adjacent to the existing channel (Figure 2). A natural levee is definable by elevations above 460 ft amsl paralleling the channel with a small associated floodbasin or depressional area landward of the levee. Elevations on the Army Corp of Engineers 1960 topographic map indicate that the thalweg channel of the Ohio River is near the north bank on the up-river end of the project area, but it is deflected from the bank further south. This would account for the active cutbank in the up-river portion of the project, but a low gradient levee slope on the south end. Markland Dam, which is 62.8 km down river, maintains a pool level of 455 ft. This is 6.7m higher than the normal river level prior to construction of the dam in the 1950's. Ray (1974:66) reports that the two-year flood altitude at Lawrenceburg prior to dam construction was 474 ft amsl indicating that the natural levee and most other areas of the floodplain would have been inundated.

Crevasse channels and splay deposits are present adjacent to the Baltimore Paleochannel and the Ohio River channel. In the north of this area are a series of subtle swales and ridges that are perpendicular to the Baltimore channel and subparallel to the Ohio. Historic-age crevasse channels have also breeched the Ohio River natural levee in at least two locations.

Stratigraphic Units

Landform Sediment Assemblages (LSA) are genetically and temporally related landforms and associated deposits (Bettis 1992:133). Six such informal stratigraphic units with subdivisions (facies) were identified in this study area based on lithological and landscape/topographic position and geometry. They range in age from late Wisconsinan to the recent post-settlement period. Five units are members of the Martinsville Formation. They consist of historic-age deposits (SU Ia, Ib), overbank sediments (SU IIa, IIb) derived from the Ohio River, Great Miami vertical, lateral accretion, and crevasse channel and splay deposits (SU IIIa, IIIb, IIIc). Outwash (SU IV), is a facies of the Atherton formation. Each of the late Holocene units and subunits or facies are described below, with all units summarized in Table 1.

SUI (Historic Alluvium). This unit, a stratified deposit of brown and dark grayish brown silt loam, loam, and well-sorted fine to very fine sand in thick, medium, and thin beds and laminae, is found adjacent to the existing Ohio River channel (Figure 4). Thickness of this unit ranges from 0.90 to 1.80 m. Very little pedogenesis was observed in these sediments (A-C profile); a function of their recent deposition. In some locations a cumlic Ap horizon was observed. Observed structure was either massive or single grain with consistence ranging from very friable to loose. Historic-age artifacts, like plastic, wire, and coal cinders, as well as disseminated unweathered wood charcoal, were observed throughout this unit. Historic alluvium blankets the Ohio River natural levee and adjacent floodbasin.

SU II (Ohio River vertical accretion alluvium--levee, floodbasin). The unit underlying SUI is generally a fine-textured deposit typical of vertical accretion alluvium from overbank flood episodes. Cores that penetrated the underlying outwash indicate that this unit is 7-9 m thick. The subdivision is based on the associated landform: SUIIa (levee), SUIIb (floodbasin).

In the upper 2+ meters of SUIIa, exposed by trenches, the unit coarsens up from a silty clay loam or clay loam to silt loam (Figure 4). Stratified beds of loam and fine sand are present between 3 and 4 meters below surface in cores indicating coarser sediments makeup part of the Ohio River levee deposit, although it is largely silt and clay dominated. The floodbasin is a massive silty clay loam to clay loam.

The upper portion of this unit displays moderate pedogenesis. As indicated above a cumlic A is present or the A horizon is buried by historic alluvium on the levee (Figure 4). The A horizon is underlain by a structural or cambic B horizon (Bw) with brown (10YR 5/3,4/3) to dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) strong medium prismatic to strong coarse angular blocky structure. Peds faces generally lack cutans. It is relatively thin, averaging 20 to 30 cm in thickness. Little or no mottling was observed on the natural levee throughout the upper 2 meters of the deposit.

SU III (Great Miami vertical and lateral accretion alluvium). This unit is associated with the late Holocene meander belt of the Great Miami. A basic division is made between alluvium associated with the main channel of the Great Miami (Greendale paleochannel) and that deposited by minor distributary channels closer to the confluence.

Investigations at two locations along the main channel indicated that it is made up of a fine-grain topstratum facies (UIIIa) that is a massive silt loam that fines up to a silty clay (Figure 5). Below the modern soil 2.5Y (light olive brown) colors predominate. The silt loam is also calcareous with zones of subfossil gastropods. A moderately developed soil is present at the top of this unit consisting of an Ap-A-Bw profile. The brown (10YR4/3) to dark yellowish brown (10YR4/4) Bw has a medium to strong grade medium subangular blocky structure. Peds have a fine angular blocky, secondary structure. No mottling was observed in trench profiles.

Underlying the fine grain overbank deposits are coarser lateral accretion sediments associated with point bars or bed load deposits. Only the upper meter of this unit penetrated by cores can be characterized. It consists of light olive brown thin to thick beds of loam, sandy loam, very fine to coarse sand, and very fine to medium pebbles.

SU IIIc and IIId are a vertical and lateral accretion deposits associated with various distributary channels of the Great Miami (Figure 6). SUIIIc is characterized by a brown to dark yellowish brown clay loam, silty clay loam, and silt loam that generally coarsens upward. The unit is leached throughout and contains infrequent gastropods. Occasional thin beds or laminae of fine sand are present at depths greater than 3 m. It is up to 9 m thick and overlies outwash (SU VI). This overbank unit has aggraded generally to an elevation of 470 ft amsl, although Old Town channel belt surface is 2.1 or more meters lower. The soil developed in the 470 surface is better developed than the soil associated with the Ohio River natural levee. In some locations it is as thick as 1.7 m with a Bt exhibiting common continuous cutans on ped faces and root pores. Very little or no mottling was noted in the trenches and albic materials are not present. The soil in the Old Town channel belt and in other locations on the 470 surface is thin with a strong to weak Bw.

SU IIId is a lateral accretion deposit associated with the Old Town channel belt (Figure 6) and other distributary channels (Baltimore paleochannel). The Old Town channel is characterized by medium beds of very dark grey silt loam, grayish brown silty clay loam, and brown silty clay loam and clay interstratified with thin beds or lamina of dark yellowish brown very fine sand, fine sand, and loamy sand (and occasional fine pebbles). These beds and laminae have abrupt boundaries. SU IIId overlies SU VI and is about 3 m below the surface. Basal portions (1.3 m to 0.2 m) of this unit are reduced with low value and chroma (10YR 3/1, 2.5 Y 5/2) values. Distributary channels appear to have finer grain bedload deposits than the main channel lateral accretion unit (SUIIIb).

SUIIIe is composed of crevasse channel and splay deposits. However, only the upper 2.0 meters exposed by trenches was examined, as no coring was conducted in this area. Sediments tend to fine down valley (e.g., grading from fine sand to sandy loam and loam to silt loam).

Other Holocene units that make up a comparatively small portion of the confluence area are a veneer of overbank deposits that cover a low gravel terrace (Hardinsburg Terrace) and alluvial/colluvial slope deposits along the upland bluff margin.

Landform Sediment Assemblage Ages

Thirty-seven radiocarbon age determinations have been made on samples recovered from prehistoric occupations in the study area, with several other dates resulting from other investigations. All but one are from the upper 3 meters of the Ohio and Great Miami stratigraphic units (SUII, SUIII). (All ages are uncorrected radiocarbon years before present.)

Three ages are currently available from deposits associated with the abandoned main channel (Greendale paleochannel) of the Great Miami. The oldest age is 4650 ±80 BP from a occupation originally buried about 2.4 m below surface in topstratum deposits of SUIIIa on the outside of a Greendale channel meander. A second age of 2800 ±60 BP was obtained from a feature less than 0.50 m of the surface. A radiocarbon age was also obtained from a point bar associated with a paleochannel fragment 1.8 km up valley in the same meander belt. Wood charcoal from a pit feature 0.57 m bs yielded an age of 2080 ±90 BP. The dates obtained thus far suggest that the Great Miami was occupied this meander belt by 4600 BP, with abandonment occurring after 2000 BP.

A large suite of dates (n=27) were obtained from overbank deposits in the distributary channel zone. A single AMS age of 5370 ±50 was obtained from a sample near the base of SUIIIc. It was recovered from a solid core 6.1 m bs and lies 0.9 m above lateral accretion deposits of SUIIId (see Figure 6).

Samples from features in the upper 3 m of the this unit (SUIIIc) associated with the 470 surface range in age from 3540 ±90 to 1060 ±70 BP. Sample ages from the Old Town channel belt (at 463 ft) overbank deposits also fall within this range (3290 ±90 - 1050 ±60 BP). It appears that the 470 surface stabilized at about 1000 BP, with about 2.5 m of alluvium accumulating over 1500 years. Alluvium aggraded in the Old Town channel belt and the current surface stabilized at about the same time. Other archeological investigations adjacent to the Baltimore paleochannel encountered a thick (0.5 m) midden buried 0.5 m below surface that yielded radiocarbon ages of 1800 ± 70 BP, 1810 ±70 BP, and 1160 ±70 BP (Kozarek 1987:7). These ages indicate that this channel was also active during roughly the same interval. An additional radiocarbon determination of 860 BP (Sedler 1990) from the nearby Jennison Guard site, a large Fort Ancient village located on the 470 surface and eastern edge of the meander belt, provides an upper bracketing age for the stabilization of this surface.

Seven dates are available from the upper meter of the Ohio River levee. The deepest below the original surface is 2440 ±90 BP at about 1.0 m. The remaining ages are from pits at the base of the plowzone (top of SUII) which range from 1170 ±70 to 890 ±80 BP. Investigations (Anslinger 1993) in a Ohio River levee at the confluence of Laughery Creek (10.4 km down river) produced an age of 2800 ±90 BP 4.19 m below surface. Ages of 1510 ±50 and 1520 ±70 BP were obtained from the Bw horizon about 0.75 bs, with two Fort Ancient period ages of 1070 ±50 and 940 ±50 BP from the Ab horizon. An age of 3310 + 110 BP was obtained from a feature 0.62 m bs south of the Tanners Creek confluence just to the south of the Argosy project. Although no basal ages are available for this overbank unit it appears that at least the upper 4.0 plus meters aggraded during the late Holocene, with stabilization of levees and the initiation of soil formation about 1000 years ago.

Two meander belts dominate the Great Miami-Ohio confluence with the modern meander belt of the Great Miami occupying the eastern portion of the valley and an earlier belt on the western side. Based on current radiocarbon determinations this latter meander belt appears to have been active during the late Holocene. It was probably abandoned by 1000 BP, possibly earlier. Besides the main channel a series of distributary channels were jointly active during this period as the floodplain aggraded to a relatively uniform surface elevation (470 ft) across the lower portion of the confluence area. The Ohio River levee and floodbasin were aggrading at about the same rate and stabilized at about the same time. The cessation of deposition allowed a soil to develop at the top of both SUII and SUIII, hence the wide spread distribution of a floodplain mollisol with a cambic horizon.

Prehistoric Components and Settlement Types

Currently, our knowledge concerning the nature of the archaeological remains in the study area is based primarily on backhoe trench exposures (Bradbury 1997; Creasman 1996; Parish et al. 1996) and Phase II investigations of 12D363 (Parish and Creasman 1996). Only preliminary archaeological observations can be derived from the intensive Phase II and Phase III Argosy investigations because these materials are currently being analyzed. Therefore, our assessment of the nature (use/function) of the components and settlement types must reflect these biases.

Ohio River Overbank/Levee (SU IIa)

Site 12D363 was found in sediments forming a natural levee on the Ohio River. Excavations conducted at the site (including ca. 350 square meters of hand excavation) sampled occupations buried within the upper 1.0 m of SU IIa. The site covered a surface area of about 0.8 hectares. Charcoal and burnt earth recovered from solid cores indicated the potential for more deeply buried occupations (ca. 4-5 m bpgs). The natural levee was covered by a thick blanket (ca. 1.0 m) of recent alluvium. Sampled cultural components consisted of truncated Late Woodland features at the base of the historic plowzone and buried Middle and Early Woodland occupations. Newtown ceramics were recovered from Feature 104-1A and Intrusive Mound ceramics were recovered from Feature 1. A Middle Woodland occupation horizon was found buried 20 to 50 cm below the base of the historic plowzone. The horizon consisted of horizontally and vertically dispersed features (ca. 12). Low densities of lithic debitage, tools and ceramics were associated with the features. Several post molds were identified in the horizon, but formed no patterns. The remains appear to represent a series of short-term residential occupation episodes. Twin Mound Cordmarked and Plain ceramics were recovered throughout the horizon suggesting a restricted temporal span. The Early Woodland horizon was represented by scattered hearths and low density remains (lithic debitage) indicating sporadic, short-term use of the levee. The horizon occurred at 80-120 cm below the base of the historic plowzone.

470 Distributary Channel Zone

Surface evidence of prehistoric use of the 470 distributary zone was highly variable in the study area. Historic landuse at sites 12D318 and 12D509 masked or destroyed surface evidence, if it was ever present. The prehistoric surface remains at sites 12D246, 12D366, and 12D376 consisted of very sparse low density scattered material. The Fort Ancient component of the Jennison Guard Site located east of 12D376 (but not investigated as part of the Argosy Project) is the only site in the area that exhibits good surface visibility (Black 1934).

Site 12D246 is located on the west flank of the Baltimore paleochannel. Previous excavations at the site (Kozarek 1987; Blosser 1989) documented an extensive Middle Woodland occupation buried 50-100 cm below surface. An extensive array of artifacts and economic remains were recovered from the site, including material associated with a mica workshop. Ceramics recovered from the midden included local Twin Mounds Cordmarked, Plain and Incised, and non-local Hopewell Series. Blosser (1989:198), based on his excavation at the site, believed the data indicated a habitation site occupied on a year-round basis. Trenching conducted to the south of the previous excavations uncovered evidence of a more deeply buried occupation at about 140-160 cm below surface (Creasman 1996). This occupation level has not been dated.

Site 12D376 is located on the east flank of the Old Town paleochannel. Archaeological remains are associated with both the higher 470 Surface and Old Town paleochannel meander belt. Initial trenching on the 470 surface documented the presence of horizontally and vertically dispersed occupation loci covering a surface area of about 3.0 hectares. The loci were characterized by thin zones of dispersed charcoal, burnt earth, rock and occasional flakes. Pit features (hearths or shallow roasting pits) were often, but not always associated. Loci occurred at depths ranging from 40-300 cm below surface. However, occupation loci occurred with the greatest frequency from about 100-200 cm below surface.

Large block excavations covering about 600 square meters sampled stratified occupation loci at three locations along the edge of the 470 Surface next to the Old Town channel. The sampled occupations ranged in depth from ca. 100-250 cm below surface. Radiocarbon assays and diagnostic artifacts date the sampled occupations to the early Middle Woodland (ca. 2145 - 1955 BP), Early Woodland (ca. 2800 -2150 BP) and Terminal Late Archaic (ca.3400 - 2950 BP). The sampled loci were generally characterized by feature areas consisting of one to two hearths or shallow roasting pits exhibiting low densities of remains (primarily lithic debitage and fire altered rock) and a low artifact diversity. Ceramic sherds were also associated with some feature areas (Early Woodland Hartman Plain, Early/Middle Woodland Twin Mounds Series and Middle Woodland McGraw Series). Approximately 60 feature areas were sampled. The remains suggest that the site at varying times was used for short-term residential occupation (or perhaps field camps) and/or specialized procurement activities.

Three sites on the 470 Surface situated on the west flank of the Old Town paleochannel also produced buried components. Backhoe trenching at 12D366 (at an elevation of 473 ft amsl) identified a series of occupation levels ranging from 40 to 180 cm below surface. The upper most occupation level was a 30-40 cm thick midden buried about 40 cm below surface. A radiocarbon age of 1820 BP (at the top of the level) and McGraw Cordmarked pottery (in the lower portion of the level) dates this occupation to the Middle Woodland period. Although only a limited number of artifacts were recovered from the site, the diversity of the remains indicated residential use. This occupation may be similar to the Middle Woodland occupation at 12D246 located adjacent to the Baltimore paleochannel. Occupation levels below the Middle Woodland component consisted typically of 5-15 cm band of dispersed charcoal, burnt soil, rock and one to two pit features. Wood charcoal and rock was observed in solid cores at depths ranging from 2.5-7 m below surface and suggested the possibility of more deeply buried occupations.

Located to the southwest of 12D366 are sites 12D318 and 12D509. Backhoe trenching and solid coring at 12D318 indicated the presence of sporadic cultural material (dispersed charcoal, burnt earth and rock) buried between 100-200 cm below surface. The surface area of the site covered about 1.0 hectares. The site surface had been severely altered by historic and modern land use. A feature located on the escarpment of the 470 Surface, at a depth of 60 cm below surface was dated at 1260 B.C.

Site 12D509 was located west of 12D318 within an historic residential area of Lawrenceburg. Backhoe trenching and hand excavations defined seven localities within the site. Much of the area was covered by one to several feet of historic and modern fill material. Site investigations identified horizontally and vertically dispersed occupation loci ranging from ca. 60 cm to over 200 cm below surface. The total site area covered a surface area of about 2.4 hectares. Locality F contained the most resent occupation identified at the site, an Intrusive Mound component dated at 995 BP and buried about 60 cm below surface. Although the component was only minimally sampled (ca. 50 square meters), the remains appear to represent a residential occupation. The component contained a unique feature, a large (over 1.0 m diameter and over 1.5 m deep) earth oven, which appeared to be spatially segregated from other remains. Middle Woodland use of the site 12D509 was sporadic, evidenced by an occasional feature loci. One Middle Woodland feature, buried about 100 cm below surface, was dated to 1740 BP The majority of the cultural remains at 12D509 was associated with the Early Woodland and Terminal Late Archaic(?) periods (ca. 2965 to 2345 BP). Stratified occupation loci were the target of large block excavations in Localities A and D (ca. 330 square meters). These occupation loci were typified by small activity areas consisting primarily of a single hearth, a low density of lithic debitage and an occasional flake tool. Approximately 40 feature areas were sampled. The remains indicated short-term, possibly specialized procurement use.

Old Town Channel Belt

Backhoe trenching of the channel belt documented the presence of buried cultural remains at sites 12D318 and 12D376. Site 12D318 was located on the west side of the channel belt and covered a surface area of ca. 2.0 hectares. The channel belt, near 12D318, was a level surface artificially created for the old county fair race track. Vertically and horizontally dispersed cultural levels were documented at 12D318 ranging from about 40 cm to 310 cm below surface. The cultural levels consisted of thin bands of dispersed charcoal, burnt soil, rock and an occasional feature. A feature at a depth of 302 cm below surface was dated to 2940 BP.

The channel belt at 12D376, unlike 12D318, consisted of complex mosaic of ridge and swale topography. Backhoe trenching at 12D376 produced similar dispersed cultural remains buried at depths range from ca. 40 cm to a little over 300 cm below surface over a surface area of about 5.0 hectares. Backhoe trenches excavated on terrain with surface elevations of 461 ft amsl or less documented buried features at depths of 25 cm, 92 cm and 105 cm. These features were radiocarbon dated to 3290, 2490 and 2930 BP, respectively (Terminal Archaic and Early Woodland). Features discovered in backhoe trenches with surface elevations greater that 460 ft amsl (up to 466 ft) documented features and levels to depths of 300 cm. A feature buried at a depth of 54 cm below surface (ca. 463 ft) dated to 1860 BP (Middle Woodland). No hand excavations were conducted in the channel belt; however, an area measuring about 8000 square meter was striped with a pan. The striped area was situated on a level surface (ca. 463-466 ft) in the southern portion of the site. Over 100 cultural features were identified during the striping. A large earth oven located at the base of the plowzone, ca. 20 cm below surface, was dated to 950 BP.

Great Miami Alluvium (SU IIIa & IIIb)

Buried archaeological material within the alluvium associated with the Greendale channel was documented at two locations. Remains associated with sites 12D510, 511 and 512 were buried in the overbank sediments adjacent to Greendale paleochannel swale. Site 12D510 was situated along the inside of a westward meander of the channel. Backhoe trenching at 12D510 documented stratified but discontinuous occupation levels range from 20 cm to 155 cm below surface. The surface area of the site covers about 3.6 hectares. The occupation levels were characterized by thin bands of dispersed charcoal, burnt soil, and rock. Small numbers of artifacts and features were associated with some levels. A single cordmarked sherd was recovered from the cultural level at 20-40 cm below the surface indicating a probable Woodland age.

Site 12D511 was situated on the outside of an eastern meander of the channel, just to the north of 12D510. The site covers about 1.1 hectares. A large borrow pit for the construction of US 50 covers much of the site area. The borrowing removed the top 2.0 m or more of overbank sediments. Backhoe trenching documented buried occupation levels below the base of the borrow pit. Near US 50, cultural levels occurred at depths of 40 to 125 cm below surface. Trenches next to the channel documented an occupation level buried from 30-60 cm below surface (ca. 240-270 cm below the original surface). Unit and block excavations (ca. 250 square meters) were conducted in this locality. The excavations recorded 64 features and 7 post molds. One series of post molds form a shallow arc next to a cluster of pit features. Low densities of lithic debitage, cores, bifaces, projectile points (Matanzas), retouched flakes, and antler tines were recovered. Approximately a half dozen notched pebbles (net sinkers) were also recovered from the site. Economic remains noted during the excavation included bone, charred nut shell and a small sample of mussel shell.The spatial distribution of features indicates that the locality was frequently reoccupied. The variety of artifacts and economic remains suggest the occupations were residential.

Backhoe trenching just to the north of 12D511, discovered a single isolated activity loci (ca. 0.1 ha). The loci (12D512) consisted of a single thermal feature and a diffuse scatter of charcoal and fire cracked rock buried about 25-30 cm below surface. The feature may have been truncated by borrowing activity. Charcoal from the feature produced a radiocarbon age of 2875 BP.

A point bar was identified in the reach of the Greendale paleochannel adjacent to the Hardinsburg terrace. A surface reconnaissance of the area documented a small (ca. 0.1 ha), low density lithic scatter. Systematic backhoe trenching across the point bar documented two localities (12D375) containing buried stratified occupation levels (4-5) ranging in depth from ca. 35 cm to 120 cm below surface. The site covered a surface area of ca. 1.0 hectares. The levels typically consisted of thin bands of scattered charcoal, burnt soil, fire cracked rock and one to two features. A feature buried 57 cm below surface was radiocarbon dated to 2008 BP.

The present study has demonstrated that buried archaeological materials are ubiquitous in the upper 2-3 m of alluvial sediments deposited by the Ohio and Great Miami Rivers. Archaeological sites were associated with a variety of landforms including levee and point bar features. Although stratified remains were common, the vast majority of site components had relatively low archaeological visibility. Occupation levels in trench exposures typically were characterized by low densities of diffuse charcoal, burnt soil, and fire altered rock. The presence of large rock (greater than 3 cm) in these fine-grained overbank sediments was a compelling factor in determining that the remains represented prehistoric use of the landscape in the absence of features and artifacts. Features and artifacts were associated with less than half of the suspected occupation levels observed in trench exposures. The Middle Woodland occupation horizons at 12D363 and 12D366 had the best archaeological visibility.

The seemly low density of archaeological remains, as indicated by backhoe trench exposures, was born out by the results of extensive hand excavations. Components associated with Terminal Archaic and Early Woodland occupations were characterized by low densities of lithic debitage and tools, although there was noticeable variation. (The estimates of densities are based on field impressions and not formal quantification of the excavation data.) Debitage densities of 1-2 flake per square meter were the norm. The highest densities (ca. 50-75 flakes per square meter) were restricted to small localized areas within a few components. Tool (including all formed lithic artifacts) densities were much lower, possibly on the order of less than one per four square meters. In addition to the low density of artifacts, the diversity of artifacts tended to be low, dominated by retouched/utilized flakes. Features associated with the components were primarily pit hearths and/or shallow roasting pits. These components appear to represent short-term occupation. The function of the occupations is difficult to assess at this time, but variation in the density and diversity of the remains suggest possible residential, field camp and specialized procurement activity. Middle Woodland components at 12D363 and the Late Archaic components at 12D511 were characterized by a slightly greater density and diversity of artifacts suggesting a residential function, however the duration of occupation still appears to be short-term. The spatial distribution of the remains indicated that reoccupation was relatively frequent and/or the landform was relatively stable.

Regional Soil-Geomorphic Patterns

The present study has shown that the LSA in and nearby the Great Miami-Ohio confluence are late Holocene in age (less than 3000-4000 BP) with additions in some areas of significant amounts of historic alluvium over the last hundred or so years. The soil-landform characteristics of these two units are similar to Holocene age-morphologic groups described by Bettis (1992) in the upper Midwest. These groups are distinguished based on a weathering zone characteristics where color and mottling patterns are used to infer states of oxidation (Bettis 1992:128) Late Holocene (LH) alluvium (3500+ BP) has a high organic content and therefore exhibits colors with low values and chroma. Prominent mottles are uncommon. Soils developed in LH are most commonly mollisols or inceptisols with cambic (Bw) horizons. Albic materials or horizons are generally absent. Bedding is usually confined to the lower part of the unit. Historic alluvium, on the other hand, is generally lighter in color than LH with prominent stratification in deposits greater than .5 m. Surface soils are entisols with A-C profiles.

As described previously the alluvium in the Great Miami-Ohio confluence is remarkably similar to the LH and historic units identified by Bettis (1992). Stratigraphic Units II and III lack mottling or albic materials and generally exhibit cambic B horizons with brown to dark brown matrix colors (i.e., low Munsell chroma and values). Huntington silt loam, which is mapped across the late Holocene Great Miami meander belt and on Ohio River levees near the modern channel, is classified as a mollisol.

Not surprisingly the historic alluvium in this reach of the Ohio River is virtually identical to that described by Bettis (1992). It is thickest (well over a meter) near active channels (the Ohio or its tributaries) in this locality. This is not uniformly the case in other reaches, however. Recent work in the Falls of the Ohio near Louisville (Stafford 1995b) found a thinner veneer of historic alluvium on channel side alluvial ridges. One controlling factor in its thickness and distribution appears to be river pool levels maintained by the lock and dam system along the Ohio. For the Great Miami locality, Markland Dam, some 62 km down stream, maintains a pool level at 455 ft, only 1.5 m below the Ohio River natural levee (but 4.5 m below the 470 distributary surface). The Knob Creek locality south of New Albany, Indiana is just below the McAlpine Dam at the Falls of the Ohio. The pool below the dam is held at 382 ft, but alluvial ridges along the channel are at 430 ft--a 14.6 m difference. The thickness and lithology of the Historic alluvium appears to be at least partially a function of the difference between the floodplain elevation and the pool level. This difference is greatest just below a dam and at a minimum on the up-river side of the dam. Between river mile 450 and 625 on the Ohio, greatest expected thickness of Historic Alluvium would be above the Markland Dam as the difference between the floodplain and the pool level decreases compared to the greater difference just below a dam. Further, the smaller the difference the coarser the overbank deposit. Near the Great Miami the historic alluvium tends to have a high sand content and is commonly stratified, whereas in the Knob Creek bottom (Caesars) it is a massive silt. The second contributing factor to the distribution of Historic alluvium are tributary stream confluences. When the Ohio River is at bank full stage and greater water tends to backup and drown tributary floodplains resulting in overbank deposition on tributary bottoms and the Ohio river floodplain near tributary confluences. As a result historic alluvium may be found further from the Ohio river channel than in the absence of a confluence.

The present study suggests that Huntington silt loam specifically and other floodplain mollisols, inciptisols, and entisols mapped in the Outer Bluegrass region of the Ohio Valley are developed in late Holocene and historic period alluvium. We lack, however, basal ages for the late Holocene alluvium. Only two samples pertain to the lower portions of this unit. The sample from Bratfish (2800 BP) lies at about the midpoint of the total thickness of the levee deposit. The sample from the Argosy project (5370 BP) dated the lower portion of the overbank unit and lies within a meter of lateral accretion deposits. Investigation in the Falls of the Ohio near Louisville indicates that some levees mapped as Huntington silt loam contain occupations older than 5000 BP based on diagnostic artifacts recovered, but no reliable dates are available at this time. Even in these cases, however, landforms did not stabilize until about 1000 BP and/or are blanketed with historic alluvium as in the Great Miami locality. That is, pedogenic development has been limited to a thousand years or less and late prehistoric occupations are still buried.

Weakly developed soils are mapped over substantial tracts of bottom land in the Ohio River valley. Typically levees which develop from channel side bars form ridges with intervening swales subparallel to the modern channel (Gray 1984; Gray et al. 1983). Sets of ridges nearest the current channel are typically mapped as mollisols (Huntington silt loam), entisols, or inceptisols. These soils are developed in belts of alluvium that average 490 m wide (and a maximum of 965 m; based on measurements of county soil maps in Indiana). The areal coverage of these soil orders suggests a substantial volume of late Holocene and later alluvium exists in the region.

Conclusions

The extensive distribution of late Holocene alluvium including recent deposition in the Great Miami confluence study area indicates a major portion of the late prehistoric record is buried and thus remains undetected if only surface survey were conducted. Terminal Archaic through Late Woodland components are systematically buried across the late Holocene meander belt identified in this study. Fort Ancient occupations, although found at the surface of the late Holocene unit, will likely be buried by historic alluvium when located near the Ohio River channel or its tributary streams.

This pattern is not restricted to the study area as indicated by other investigations in the Outer Bluegrass region of the Ohio Valley. Figure 1 indicates locations where late prehistoric remains have been found in buried contexts in Ohio River alluvium. Some 1.5 km down river from the current study areas at the confluence of Tanners Creek, Fort Ancient remains were observed on the floodplain surface away from the creek, but are also buried in the channel bank of Tanners Creek (O’Brian 1995). Woodland sherds were recovered from the Ohio River levee cut bank 2.0 m below surface and observed in a trench on an interior floodplain ridge adjacent at 0.75 m bs. Remains appear to be continuously distributed along the levee.

A radiocarbon dated sequence of occupations, mentioned previously, were recovered from the Bratfish site some 10 km down river at the Laughery Creek confluence. The crest of the levee is at 470 ft sloping to 460 ft at rivers edge. A veneer of historic alluvium thickens away from the modern channel covering the levee crest and capping the modern soil that contains a Fort Ancient occupation. At the base of a cumlic Ab and in the underlying Bbw is a Late Woodland (limestone tempered ceramics) component which was also identified adjacent to the Ohio River channel. At the apex of the levee this component is in turn underlain by Middle Woodland and Terminal Archaic remains to a depth of at least 4.5 meters below surface. Huntington silt loam is mapped across this segment of floodplain. The occupations found at Bratfish are short-term occupations. The Fort Ancient component in particular is either a extractive camp or short-lived farmstead or residential.

Other reaches of the valley show a similar pattern. Up river at the confluence of Twelvemile Creek a Fort Ancient village occupation (Bintz site; McCord 1953) is buried by 0.6-0.7 m of alluvium (likely historic-age). At the down river limits of the region in the Falls of the Ohio area a number of projects have encountered buried Woodland-age remains in alluvium with the surface soil mapped as Huntington silt loam. Substantial Early Woodland and Middle Woodland occupations (200+ features) at the Clark Maritime project (Sieber and Ottesen 1989) are buired by a 0.5-0.8 m thick sandy overbank deposit that appears to be at least partially historic alluvium. These occupations, which span the period 2290-1930 BP, are contained within the upper meter of a silt loam and silty clay loam levee (Basset 1989). On going work at the Caesars project in the bottom of Knob Creek has encountered Early/Middle Woodland components again buried by a thin veneer of silty historic alluvium and contained in a silty clay loam levee adjacent to the modern channel (Stafford and Cantin 1996). These components are characterized by high densities of artifacts and a wide range of feature types suggesting intensive residential occupation.

Not only are Woodland and often Fort Ancient remains buried in late Holocene alluvium some of which is very recent in the Outer Bluegrass region, but a wide range of settlement types are contained in these levees. In the Argosy project a nearly continuous, but punctuated distribution of late prehistoric remains were encountered in the upper 3 meters of the overbank unit across the late Holocene meander belt. The light density remains and strong spatial patterning of debris and features suggests short-term residential camps and/or extractive camps exploiting resources found in wetlands associated the meander belt and channel distributary network in the floodplain. The systematic burial of these kinds of occupations has several implications for region settlement studies in the Outer Bluegrass Region of the Ohio. First, investigations restricted to the surface record will ignore a significant aspect of the regional settlement pattern associated with the Woodland and Fort Ancient subsistence and settlement strategies. Second, these types of occupations with low archaeological visibility when they occur on relic landforms at the surface, where subject to cultivation and incorporation into the plowzone, are likely to be identified as minor debris scatters of little interest. In regional studies, however, they represent even in a surface context a crucial part of the record that deserves attention.

Longer-term or more intensive occupations are also buried in Ohio River levees and therefore biases are not restricted to a particular settlement type. Because of the differential thickness and distribution of historic alluvium across the floodplain, large Fort Ancient villages and mound sites have been previously identified in the Ohio River valley giving the impression that complete settlement pattern is known. A Fort Ancient mound group and associated village have been recorded at Laughery Creek (Black 1934), yet a late prehistoric farmstead is buried by historic alluvium at the Bratfish site on the up-river side of the confluence.

Woodland components are more likely to be systematically buried adjacent to the modern channel since they occur in levees that continued to aggrade after the occupation. Substantial villages are represented including the Whitacre site at the Great Miami confluence, and the Early Middle Woodland components located in the Clark Maritime District and Caesars projects. Any study of Fort Ancient and Woodland settlement strategies in this region should incorporate a systematic sampling of the subsurface where floodplain mollisols, entisols, or inciptisols are mapped.

Finally, the nearly continuos distribution of prehistoric remains in landforms argues against the traditional site oriented approach (Stafford 1995). Defining sites and their boundaries becomes a capricious task. Landforms rather than sites should be the fundamental sampling units.

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